1. Informal fallacies
It involves the use of irrelevant appeals as a substitute for the use
of reason and logical argument. For example, ad hominem; straw man;
question begging; arguing in a circle; appeal to pity, fear, popularity,
etc. (see list of informal fallacies). It assumes that if pseudo-argument
does not succeed, no argument will succeed.
2. Tradition and custom
It assumes what we are most comfortable with is true. For example:
Since it has been around a long time it is true; it is right because that
is the way I have been taught. Most people I know think and act this
way, etc. This certainty melts in our exposure to other cultures
or hardens into prejudice.
3. Common sense
It assumes that appearance is reality (naïve realism). For
example: The earth is flat; the sun rises in the east; the color
of the ocean is blue, green, gray, clear. Common sense takes the
condition of the perceiver for granted.
4. Intuition
It assumes that the natural sign is always accompanied by the reality,
or the sign is the reality. For example: Truth is beauty, beauty
truth; pleasure and goodness; sex and love; smile (good vibrations) and
friendliness. It assumes this is a morally ideal world.
5. Science
Science is being misused and becomes a source of skepticism when its
methods are over-extended to a philosophical principle. For example:
i) When empiricism is assumed (all knowledge is ultimately from sense
experience – there are no innate ideas of reason apart from experience).
ii) When it goes beyond its empirical boundary (in assuming only natural
or material forces must be used to explain phenomena).
iii) When it fails to distinguish data (pure experience) from fact
– data interpreted in light of philosophical assumptions.
iv) When it fails to notice that science does and must have philosophical
foundations which have to be critically analyzed for coherence of meaning.
v) When skeptical disclaimers (tentativeness and pragmatism) are used
to forgo philosophical criticism of its assumption.
6. Reason
Reason is a source of skepticism when it is misused or not fully used.
i.) It is misused when used as a source of truth rather than as a test
for meaning.
ii.) It is not fully used when it is used constructively only and not
first and fundamentally used critically to examine basic assumptions for
coherence of meaning.
© Surrendra Gangadean